Environmental Impacts of the Manhattan Project

Environmental Impacts of the Manhattan Project Background In the year 1940, the US government started their own nuclear weapons project that was later named The Manhattan Project. This was due to the fact that some American scientists, who were comprised mostly of European refugees, feared that Nazi Germany, under the leadership of Adolf Hitler, was already conducting their own nuclear weapons development (Independence Hall Association, n.d.). The development of the atomic bomb was then moved to Los Alamos in New Mexico where the project was overlooked by Robert J. Oppenheimer and his team. In the morning of July 6 1945, the first nuclear bomb was successfully detonated. 2 types of nuclear bomb were later developed. The first one was a gun-type fission weapon that used uranium-235 while the second one was a much powerful and efficient but also more complicated implosion-type nuclear weapon using plutonium-239. Both the bomb was given the nickname â€Å"Little Boy† and â€Å"Fat Man† and was later detonated in Hiroshima and Nagasaki respectively. The atomic bomb was initially to be detonated in Nazi Germany. But with the surrender of Nazi Germany after their leader, Adolf Hitler, committed suicide, the attention was then turned on the Japanese who was still fighting in the war. The initial plan to force the Japanese to surrender was to launch Operation Downfall (Trueman, n.d.). The plans of the operation were to continue to bomb Japan using the US bombers followed by a massive land invasion. If the invasion were to happen, the US military will lose more than a million personnel. To avoid such tragedy from happening, the US president, Harry S. Truman, insisted to use the atomic bomb on Japan. On the morning of August 6 1945, the atomic bomb, Little Boy, was dropped over Hiroshima (Atomic bomb dropped on Hiroshima, n.d.). The blast of the atomic bomb is equivalent to 12,000-15,000 tons of TNT and it destroyed about 5 square miles of the cities. Furthermore, some 70,000-80,000 people died as a result of the explosion and around 70,000 people were injured. Similarly, the atomic bomb that blasted in the mid-air of Nagasaki also caused a substantial amount of casualties. The high number of deaths was not the only aftermath of the nuclear explosion, but it also affected the environment and also the people’s health around Hiroshima as well as Nagasaki. Environmental Impacts The onset of Japan’s nightmare was marked, as the two atomic bombs that were set in motion by the United States exploded in Hiroshima and Nagasaki respectively. The disastrous impacts of both atomic bombs essentially rest upon the intensity, energy and power liberated at the point of bombing. Nuclear weapons such as the atomic bomb bring about a relentless amount of destruction to the environment and the climate on a scale imitable to any other lethal mankind armament. In retrospect, not only that the use of atomic bombings in the war gave humanity a giant blood stain, but also shows us that an atomic bomb is no mere explosion, it also has the ability to leave numerous impacts on the environment. There were many environmental effects caused by the atomic bombing. One of them was the emission of the tremendous amount of radiation (Energy and Radioactivity, 2006). Like any other atomic bombing, fallout happened during the bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Fallout, according to the Oxford dictionary, is defined as the process in which radioactive particles are carried into the atmosphere following a nuclear explosion and falling back onto the ground later as dust or in precipitation. As a result, thick ‘black rain’ that contains radioactive soot and dust started falling from the sky, reaching the ground as hazardous radioactive water. The black rain did not only damage the surroundings and the infrastructures but it also caused radiation poisoning through inhalation and the consumption of contaminated food and water (Energy and Radioactivity, 2006). The radiation emitted lasted for decades where many unfortunate victims who were exposed to intense amount of high r adiation had to bear with leukemia and Keloids (Energy and Radioactivity, 2006). Contaminated areas with high levels of residual radiation remained contagious for an extended amount of time, putting thousands in long periods of lethal infirmity. The process of healing is often slow resulting in immense deterioration of the immune system. Since there is no effective treatment, death follows in a matter of days. Likewise, the explosions of the atomic bomb also led to environmental contamination. The contamination of water is one of the most severe. When living organisms happen to drink the water that is exposed to radiation, be it humans or animals, they are very likely to suffer from serious health problems. Worse still, when rivers in the cities were contaminated, the current brought the radioactive water to other parts of Japan and eventually into the ocean, spreading the radiation beyond Japan itself. This implies that even people who don’t stay in or near Hiroshima and Nagasaki will still be affected by the radiation. The contamination of soil and air is just equally horrible. When the bombs in Hiroshima and Nagasaki exploded in the middle of the air, high degree of radiation was emitted and carried by wind to areas beyond the cities. It then dispersed gradually and led to radioactive air contamination. Similarly, plants and agriculture products further away from the center of ex plosions were also contaminated along with the soil. The radioactive soil became extremely infertile while the agricultural products that didn’t get burned up could no longer be consumed due to the radiation they contain. The contamination gave Japan a hard time recuperating and it took months before the Japanese citizens could put foot in either of these cities again. In addition, the atomic bombing in Hiroshima and Nagasaki also brought about thermal radiation that burned the surrounding with extreme heat. The explosions generated powerful shockwaves together with enormous fireballs that killed thousands of people within seconds. This ultimately gave rise to a large firestorm as the individual flames combined, and before long, both cities were covered in thick black smoke. Through the process of combustion, the firestorms used up substantial amount of oxygen in the atmosphere to produce flame (â€Å"The Effects of Nuclear Weapons,† n.d.). The smoke released into the atmosphere by the wild fires also produced soot that causes the global temperature to fall. In a recent study, scientists have found out that, a nuclear war that involves 100 Hiroshima-sized bombs would cause the global temperature to fall to Ice Age levels. (â€Å"The Environmental Effects of Nuclear Weapons,† n.d.). This would have an overwhelming impact on all of huma nity. Besides, the aftermath of the atomic bombing in Hiroshima and Nagasaki further resulted in drastic climate change. As noted earlier, when the atomic bombs were dropped, an enormous amount of heat wave was released into the air. This vast heat wave was later suppressed relatively by the process of rapid cooling. These circumstances were the perfect setting for the mass production of nitric oxides (Chen, 2010). The massive amount of nitric oxides that is transported to the atmosphere weakens the concentration of the protective ozone layer which is essential to block and protect us from the deadly ultraviolet rays from entering the Earth’s surface. The nitric oxides formed decreased the ozone levels in the Northern Hemisphere and such depletion utter tremendous alteration to the Earth’s climate. A study shows that nuclear battle involving atomic bombs would bring about an enormous hole in the Earth’s ozone layer that would unmask millions of lives to excessive amount of the blazing sunrays (Chen, 2010). It would permit even more ultraviolet rays directly from the sun to penetrate the mere surface of the Earth. With that, if exposed, consequences such as hazardous burns and many other serious ecological effects would emerge. Besides, the increase in excessive amount of ultraviolet rays leads to a steep rise in skin cancer and cataracts among humans. Moreover, like we humans, land and aquatic creatures, who apportion the same living space, would also face the repercussion of the atomic bomb in a direction that it disrupts their regular food chains that would fetch the entire ecosystem to a standstill (Jha, 2006). Ultimately, all the effects that came about from the explosion of the atomic bomb in Hiroshima and Nagasaki shows a clear validation of the Earth’s fragility towards the overwhelming desire of ultimate power, selfishness and the presumptuous nature of humans who ignore the degradation of the environment. This irresponsible and unthoughtful behavior would eventually result in inevitable consequences that bring a sense of regret and suffering that we humans should bear upon ourselves in the final stage. In short, the atomic bombs dropped in Nagasaki and Hiroshima brought destruction to the environment of the cities, at the same time contributed to global pollution and possibly a lot more post-effects that have yet to be discovered. Mitigation/Remediation Activities As if they knew there was no time to grief over their devastated state of their quintessential cities when the war came to an end with detonation of two vicious, powerful atomic bombs. Everything was gone as they came. But yet, they fret not. The Japanese, although have had their morale shattered, stood right back at their feet contemplating solutions to the matter at hands. And today, their efforts are proven success with evidence of both cities recovered almost perfectly from the bombings. So, the question remained on how did the Japanese manage to resuscitate Hiroshima and Nagasaki the cities of ruins into functional metropolises today? (Coping with Chaos, 2006) After the Atomic Bomb was dropped on Hiroshima, it was completely vanquished. Buildings destroyed, countless dead and resources were utterly depleted. People started finding ways on how to recover from such impact and to make it whole again. As terrible as it sounded, radiation seemed to be the worst impact for people in Hiroshima as it cannot be fully recovered for those who were affected. The radiation led to diseases that brought death to unimaginable amount of people and that it can hardly be avoided. While victims that are affected were hospitalized in Hiroshima A-bomb Hospital, some were evacuated to countryside without any choice in order to avoid from further affections. On the other hand doctors and nurses were mostly among the victims thus, resulting in failure to perform their duty to help others. There was also a major shortage in medical supplies due to the bombing that destroyed most of it (Coping with Chaos, 2006). From here we can clearly see that there is no specific solution in terms of medical aids for victims that were affected. Besides that, due to radiation released from nuclear reactions, the environment of the drop site was contaminated. In the advent of nuclear war, it is clear that no one knew the destructive power these nuclear bombs could impose moreover the effects. Hence, when Hiroshima and Nagasaki occurred, there was no solution to the problem until they analyze the consequences the bombs had caused after the incident. Without an unravelment at that moment of time, the only way to repel these radiations is to rely on the elements’ natural ability to decay over time which is 700 million years, for Uranium-235 that detonated at Hiroshima, and 24,000 years, for Plutonium-239 at Nagasaki respectively (Takahashi, 2011). The evidence of human existence today is due to the fact that when the bombs were dropped, it detonated in the air, ergo reducing the actual damage of the radiation to the surrounding at ground zero. This is because with an air burst, a detonated explosive weapon in the air, the fission products rise into stratosphere where they disperse hence reducing the effect of nuclear fallout as the radiation released from the fireball of the bomb is kept from touching ground (Glasstone Dolan, 1977). As time passes, people in Hiroshima and Nagasaki needed a way to rise again and they needed it desperately but they knew it was impossible to recover immediately. It was really hard for them to cope with the aftermath of the whole bombing but their hope never died. Hiroshima today is indeed in a good and peaceful condition surrounded by roughly one million people with self-awareness just like any other city around the globe (Powell Hiroshima, 2005). Buildings were destroyed, massive diseases took place but a wiped out city has to be rebuilt in every aspect especially in terms of physical, emotional and psychological. Not long after the strike, Hiroshima came up with an idea on constructing a peace memorial but it somehow turned out to be a peace memorial park. Powell and Hiroshima (2005) asserts that the centerpiece was transformed into a peace museum as remembrance of the tragic event of nuclear strike. At this point, we knew that any city would have given up at this very stage but Hiroshima took its recovery step by step to rise again and the only thing they needed was time. Today, Hiroshima and Nagasaki left a mark in the history of turning the impossible to possible by rebuilding what was destroyed into modern cities that bear the regalia of hope for all humanity. Conclusion Coming to a conclusion to the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in Japan, we as a team do believe that such a tragedy has left a permanent scar not just to the people of Japan, but also to the whole world. The two bombs that were dropped upon these two locations were the first and last usage of nuclear weaponry in warfare up-to-date. The people of the world bear witness to one of the most catastrophic man-made disaster which causes tremendous damage to innocent lives and the environment. The large Area of Effect (AOE) caused by this incident has caused a huge damage to the environment on a very large scale. The environmental damage varies from land, sea, and air. Radiation emission was the biggest environmental impact caused by these atomic bombs. The water was polluted with high cloudiness, coloured, hazardous taste, odour, unsuitable pH level and much more. The land and air are both badly polluted which results in contaminated and damaged soil for crops and soil, which affects food source. The two areas became a nuclear wasteland for a period of time and people are starting to think that such a thing is irrecoverable. But Japan has proven them wrong. Despite facing such a dreadful situation, Japan managed to recover from the incident. Both Hiroshima and Nagasaki is now even livelier than before which serves as a reminder of the human ability to recover and regenerate. The mitigation and remediation process took years for them to get back on their feet. Nevertheless, they succeeded in the end, turning the tables from a polluted environment in every direction, to a suitable place and habitat of the living, may it be humans, animals or plants. The people of Japan did not rely on the environment’s natural ability to decay the radiation completely over hundred millions of years and put things into their own hands. Atomic bombing has caused nothing but trouble to the world, and we believe that it is nothing less than an inexcusable act of mass murder. We also strongly believe that the continuous usage of such is inhumane and would result in a more terrifying destruction considering the condition of the planet now is even worse than before in environmental terms. No matter what the reason may be, destruction as such to the environment is unforgivable as it creates a channelling chain reaction which brings harm to those around it.

Carolingian Renaissance Handwriting

Carolingian Renaissance Handwriting The Carolingian Renaissance is known for the cultural transitions and great achievements that were obtained in the 8th century under the direction of Charlemagne. Charlemagne, who was also known as Carolus Magnus and Charles the Great, was one of the greatest leaders during the Middle Ages. He was a military man, king of the Franks, and was appointed as Roman emperor in 800 AD. Throughout Europe, he was seen as a great example of an emperor and Christian king. Not only did he revive the political system but also the cultural life of Europe. His activities were seen as a strong foundation of the European civilization which developed during the Middle Ages around 400 A.D. This was his effort in improving the educational standards of the people of the church and his men who held roles in the government. His choice for doing such thing was to have control with his people and others. This educational reform had many great accomplished during that period. Along with this advancement, monas tic scriptoria all over the kingdom used the same type of handwriting. Thus it made the hard work of copying the manuscripts easier and it was seen favorable by many. Also most manuscripts from the medieval times, whether with illuminations or not, were written on parchment. The usage of â€Å"vellum† signified that the manuscript was of great importance. This period allowed many more books to be made and with that more types of books were being used in society. In relation, illuminated manuscripts were items that were the most common during the Middle Ages. They were great examples of medieval painting and being well-preserved made them great surviving specimens of that time period. New innovations for manuscript layouts and embellishments were incorporated into the fabrication of manuscripts. In consequence, the many advances of the Carolingian Renaissance can be seen through the new layout and fabrication of a manuscript, the use of illuminations and different types of ill uminations being produced and the introduction of the Carolingian minuscule or Caroline writing. A typical illuminated manuscript has the components of having texts along with embellishments in the means of using decorations. These decorations range from decorated borders, initials and miniature drawings. If one were to elaborate on the exact definition of the term â€Å"illuminated manuscript†, it would be related to manuscripts highlighted with silver or gold. Earliest surviving illuminated manuscripts date back from around 400 AD to AD 600 and are thought to have been from Italy, Constantinople and Ireland. However, the majority of the surviving manuscripts come from the Middle Ages along with the many manuscripts from the 15th Century Renaissance period and the few from the Late Antiquity stage. Most of these manuscripts were made for religious purposes but evidence shows that there too was an abundance of secular texts that were illuminated. Also these illuminated manuscripts started off in the form of codices, and at times antique scrolls. There is also a continued existence of loose single sheets and some illuminated manuscript fragments which remain on papyrus form. During the Early Middle Ages, books were fabricated in monasteries for business, display or personal use. This led to the beginning of commercial scriptoria that were located in major European cities such as the ones belonging to Italy, Paris and also the Netherlands. Most medieval manuscripts illuminated or not, were scripted on parchment. Such parchment was composed of stretched and treated animal skins of sheep, calf or goat. The term vellum was used to describe manuscripts of great value and high quality. These manuscripts were important because they were used for illuminations. Vellum was made up of un-spilt calf-skin and the other high qualities of animal skins were simply considered as parchment. â€Å"A large manuscript required the use of a whole cow skin and also the whole skin of a sheep to fabricate a folded sheet of two to four pages.† Hides of a whole herd wo uld be required for thick books which made the creation of a Medieval book extremely precious and expensive. About 258 leafs would need approximately 130 animals and it would make piles of four gatherings of leafs. At the start of the Middle Ages, paper use was used to formulate manuscripts and early books that were printed had space left over for miniatures and rubrics to be incorporated later on. Illuminated initials and decorations along the margins were also commonly used. However when printing started to become more popular, there was an increase of books produced and at the same time illuminations decreased. In the early 16th century, illuminated manuscripts were still being produced but not in great quantities. These manuscripts were mainly produced for the rich individuals in society. Books were not owned by many and are seen as a great possession and treasure to have along with the great sense of importance in society. The Carolingians got a sense of Mediterranean art and culture when Charlemagne went to Rome, where he held the title as Holy Roman Emperor in AD 800. He was the symbolic representative of Rome and he since he wanted to revive the Roman culture and learning of the West, it made him the promoter of the arts. He had the goal of joining the artistic accomplishments of the Early Christian and Byzantine culture with that of his own. While Charlemagne was in power, the Byzantine Empire was divided because of Iconoclasm, which was the destruction of religious monuments and sacred images. He made the smart choice of not favouring either side. There were consequences that arose when he decided not to adopt the iconoclastic traditions and at the same time he incorporated a few human figures in society. The Carolingian art promoted the development of Western Romanesque and Gothic art. If Charlemagne partnered with the Iconoclast, Western art that one views it today would be non-existent. Evidenc e of such art can be seen from the surviving manuscripts, sculptures, works of metal and other artifacts from that age. During the Carolingian Renaissance, the illuminated manuscripts were the most number of works that survived from that era. Charlemagne had great ideas while he was in power. While in command new Gospels and liturgical works were prepared, as were educational materials used to depict historical, scientific and literary works originating from ancient authors. The Carolingian art had different monastic centers throughout the Carolingian Empire which were known as ateliers. These ateliers were special because each one had its own unique style and it was influenced by the artists and current styles of that place and time. These images were drawn after the texts were complete. Illustrators designed and planned the abstract and complex images on wax tablets which were the common drawing apparatus of that period. These wooden tablets were hollow for the incorporation of wa x and the writing apparatus used for it would be a bone or a stylus. On the other tip of the writing utensil would be a spatula to scrape away errors or to erase the whole image and is re-used again. After that process of â€Å"preliminary drawing† is finished, the drawing is then traced or illustrated meticulously on the vellum. Pinpricks and other markings are used to accomplish a great manuscript. Such work ethics can be seen with the fabrication of the Lindisfarne Gospels. Another new incorporation that can be seen in the sacred gospels is the introduction of â€Å"red dots†, as part of the page decoration which, was tedious work and needed to be done with patience and care. The sacred scriptures would also be composed of the Evangelists portrait, an image of a carpet made out of spirals and enamel work and finished off with a grand display. Other work methods can be seen through incomplete manuscripts that survived from that time. Most manuscripts usually were not composed of illustrations because they were mainly used for educational purposes and its only illuminations would be decorations on the initials. If there were manuscripts with full illuminations, it would be used for display purposes and be seen as an illustration book. That was the state of manuscripts during the Middle Ages, but great changes occurred towards the fabrication of manuscripts during Romanesque period. These changes included the incorporation of more illumination and decorations in the books and the study books contained some images, but they were not illustrated with colour. This tendency grew into the Gothic period where there were bigger image sizes but at least one if not many decorations around the page. Foliate patterns on elaborate boarders were the common fixings integrated in the manuscript. â€Å"A Gothic page might contain several areas and types of decoration; a miniature in a frame, a historiated initial beginning of a passage of text, and a border wit h drolleries.† A different artist was utilized to work on different part of the decoration. An artist had their own unique skill that they used when working on a certain piece of an image. A standardized form of Latin, which originated from Classical Latin, was used in the texts along with new formed words. Medieval Latin was most used in that time and was a common language used by the people of Europe. In fact, this language was commonly used by businessmen and scholars for communication, learning and administration purposes. The texts were usually incorporated first when it came to constructing an illuminated manuscript. Script depended on the style that were currently being used in society and the one that were most popular. Scripts such as Uncial and half-Uncial were introduced because of the ongoing development and usage of unique texts such as insular miniscule and insular majuscule. Before these texts were established, the Roman letters were used during the Middle Ages. Around the 13th century, black thick and solid letters were shown and it was made more in style around the Middle Ages. Around the 9th century, rooms made solely for writing became extremely popular and were apart of most monasteries. This room was called a scriptoria and it was there were most books were copied. This was a brutal job and it was shown through the hard work done by the monks. The process included the need to check for mistakes and to correct errors that have been made through the years. The copiers would need to study the text and script very carefully because one mistake would be a sin and they would be severely penalized. Other discrepancies such as poorly lit rooms, bad weather conditions and physical fatigue made this job even more difficult for the monks. There was also â€Å"no standard scholarly language†. Charlemagne decided to change the then current writing style and tried to make a standard method for writing. The writing style that society was used to at that time consisted to all uppercase letters and texts without interruptions and punctuations. There was no eviden t division between the words. This old writing style was the old un-spaced Roman capital script called â€Å"uncial†. Charlemagnes brilliant idea worked as it made copying and reading easier for everyone. This style of writing is called the â€Å"Carolingian Miniscule† and is still currently being used today. Unlike the older style, this new one had a separation between words and there was evident use of punctuations in the text. Charlemagne also made standards for Medieval Latin because there were evident changes in the Latin language during the last couple of decades. Different expressions, new phrases and words were developed and integrated into the language. Composing a manuscript included the copying of an old piece of literature, having a decorated picture and possessing fancy capital letters. This act was seen as a great accomplishment at that period. The sacred scripture and writings of the bible were transformed and transfigured into many different forms. Most ministers were illiterate and people who were not from the ordained clergy did not have access to these sacred texts. Charlemagne disliked oblivious priests who could not read nor comprehend their own scriptures. Charlemagne created laws and decrees that stated that clerics would loose their position and job in the office if they were illiterate. Bishops had to respect such demand and needed to be literate but there are some cases where bishops were not able to read and write. Charlemagne enforced a â€Å"standardized Vulgate Bible†, which was a common Benedictine Rule and a basic liturgy. However, in order to obtain such concept, he needed to have a â€Å"standardized written language†. Charlemagne found an orthodox churchman from England named Alcuin to help him gain a step closer to his schemes. Alcuin and his fellow monks examined many ancient classical scripts in order to find incentives for the new script. In consequence, the Carolingian miniscule was establishe d which was the unification of the small and capitalized letter. The Carolingian miniscule comprised of letters that possessed â€Å"the most decorative flourishes and the system of ligatures was eliminated.† As this style of writing dispersed into England during the 10th century and in Spain in the following century, Carolingian miniscule reformed to being the â€Å"written language of oppression and religious orthodoxy†. It established itself as the official script and literary hand and style of the Frankish region. Later on, scripts such as the ones of â€Å"Gothic†, â€Å"Roman† and â€Å"Humanists† preceded in time and thus making this script most commonly used today. Thus, Charlemagne took all these differences and transformations and added them to the new scholarly language which is known as Medieval Latin. Thus, the many advances of the Carolingian Renaissance is depicted through the new layout and fabrication of a manuscript, the use of illuminations and different types of illuminations being produced and the introduction of the Carolingian minuscule or Caroline writing. Charlemagne is seen as a great leader who has done many successful things for his people and kingdom. Though was not literate he tried and had a lot of perseverance. Depictions of Charlemagne wanting to be able to read and write are recorded throughout history. He would try and attempt to write everyday with wax tablets and even asked the help of men who were able to write. The Holy Roman Emperor would also leave notebooks and writing tablets underneath his people hoping that one day he will be able to become literate. However, it was simply too late for him to become literate because he needed to have practiced such skill since his youth. Though he was not literate he still had the ability to be a great leader. Charl emagne ruled individuals from different ancestry lines who were descendants of many races and who spoke languages that were unique from one another. Some of these individuals included the Romans, Goths, Lombards, Burgundians, Saxons, Franks and many others groups. Western Europe was filled with monasteries where several â€Å"national styles† of the cursive formations of Latin surfaced such as Merovingian, Visigothic, Germanic, and Anglo- Irish. Each party had a â€Å"monastery dialect† which was used by individuals to facilitate copying in an exclusive way and abides with each cloisters preference. His way of reconciling the many people and facilitating the hard work of the laborers made his excellent influence of the many changes he incorporated seen today. The ancient and valuable artifacts that are seen today are because of his ability to unite society and individual characteristics as one.

Essay on the Ibos Sacred Relationship in Chinua Achebes Things Fall A

The Ibo's Sacred Relationship in Things Fall Apart The Ibo people had a very sacred relationship with their landscape. Their entire existence depended on their environment and nature was sacred to them. This is unlike the English who came to the lower Niger with imperialistic goals of "civilizing" these "primitive" people. The Europeans were more technologically advanced, but in this progression they lost touch with nature and the spiritual connection with this significant aspect of the world. The Ibo on the other hand personified nature and turned to deities as well as ancestral spirits for guidance in their survival against unexplainable and often uncontrollable forces. When hardships arise they attempt to appease their gods and their spirits through sacrifice and ritual. Nature is a major theme of the religion of the Ibo and spirituality is very closely associated with the earth. Nature was also consulted in times of conflict between tribesmen. When Uzowulu was accused of beating his wife excessively her family took the case to the egwugwu, or the spirits of the nine sons, of the original father of the clan, which gave rise to the nine villages in the clan. These spirits were in reality men in the tribe wearing masks, but all of the villagers put their faith in the idea that these bodies are in fact occupied by spirits of ancestors who will offer advise in a time of hardship. With the commencement of the hearing of Uzowulu before these masked spirits he touches the ground as a sign of submission to the higher powers. While Uzowulu will only listen to the decision of the egwugwu because they are beyond any mortal, he overlooks the fact that these decision-makers are really his fellow villagers. This fai... ...landscape in which these people live. To kill a royal python is such an unfathomable crime, that there is not even a punishment prescribed for the act, and when the convert kills the python the people do not even think that it could have possible been done intentionally. This reveals the significance of nature as sacred. All aspects of the landscape were made sacred because these people greatly depended on nature for survival and many aspects were inexplicable, so they were given supernatural explanations to aid in an otherwise unattainable resolution. This people were greatly misunderstood by colonialists who sought to "civilize" them and attempted to thrust Christianity upon an uninterested audience to aid in the control and "pacification" of a people that apparently already had a worthy explanation and understanding of the world in which they lived.

Psychotherapy Essay -- Psychodynamic Therapy

The aim of psychotherapy is to encourage self-awareness and self-evaluation in order to enable transformation and facilitate possibility. It is this self-evaluation process that is crucial to personal agency (McKay, 1987) and integral to psychodynamic therapy (PDT) and cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT). This essay will critically evaluate cognitive behavioural and psychodynamic theories regarding self-awareness and self-evaluation and explore ways in which these theories and their understanding of self may be utilised within clinical hypnosis. CBT and rational emotive behaviour therapy REBT (Ellis, 1955) rely on self-reflection and evaluation in order to achieve success. CBT utilises the stimulus -response (SR) model (Pavlov, 1903). Reflexive response to stimulus (Gross, 2005) becomes modified to stimulus –cognition- response (SCR) (Beck, 1967). This introduces a reflective element, similar to the input- processing -output schema found in the computational model of the mind (Putman, 1961, 1988; Fodor, 1979). Decision-making and rationality (Jones and Pulos, 1993) are employed in order to negotiate knowledge of internal influence. Once this knowledge is perceived cognitions are evaluated and reassessed before rational alternatives are generated (Ellis, 1962). Thereby introducing the possibility of transformation. CBT is most effective with anxiety disorders (Beck et al 1985; Schoenberger et al, 1997; Brown 2007) and eating disorders (Baker and Nash, 1987; Griffiths et al, 1996). Meta analysis also supports the use o f CBT with depression (Gaffan, Tsaosis, Kemp-Wheeler, 1995; Butter and Beck, 2000). However, whilst some studies suggest that CBT is most effective when used alone i.e. without drugs (Marks, Swinson, Basoglu, Kuch, N... ...hin hypnotherapeutic practice. Freud’s regression technique is usefully employed within hypnosis in order to gain insight or to recognise the source of a problem e.g. inner child work, counting back. Furthermore, Freud’s concept regarding trauma fixation which concerns psychosexual stages may be used to indicate the root cause of habitual behaviours e.g. oral re: eating, oral aggressive re: nail biting, anal-retentive re: OCD. Having said this it is important to recognise the flaws within Freud’s research. Firstly, his sample group are not universally representative. Secondly, the culture and era make theories less relevant to today. Furthermore, research comes from a personal perspective and therefore is not empirically sound. It could also be argued that too much emphasis is put on sexuality being at the root of psychological and behavioural problems throughout.

Critical Appreciation of William Blakes London :: essays papers

Critical Appreciation of William Blake's London William Blake who lived in the latter half of the eighteenth century and the early part of the nineteenth century was a poet, a philosopher, a radical, an artist, and a great thinker; who was able to bring about "remarkable results with the simplest of means" in all of his work. He wrote his poems with deep personal emotions but if we look further and ignore the prophetic qualities we discover a further intended meanings of a strong political and social level. He was a critic of his own era but his poetry also strikes a chord in ours. He was one of several poets of the time who restored emotion and feelings into poetry, and so was one of the first "romantics." Blake lived during a period of intense social changes, the industrial revolution, the French revolution and the American revolution all happened during his lifetime. Blake was witness to the transformation of a agricultural society to an industrial society, which is where the basis for some of his poems stand. As an example, we may look towards William Blake’s "London" from his songs of experience, here Blake comments on a city he both loves and hates, it shows his disapproval of changes which occurred in his times. Blake describes the woes that the Industrial revolution and the breaking of the common mans ties to the land results in. He uses many methods to gain the perfect description of how he saw industrial "London" but the most outstanding method is his use of imagery. His first use of imagery is the first and second lines of the first stanza, he uses the words "charter’d streets" and "charter’d Thames." A charter is a legal document which gives legal powers to the council of a town or city which allows them to be able to create there own laws within the boundaries of that place. The imagery suggests that not only do the streets of London have to follow the rules but that the River Thames has to be regulated as well. The lawmakers have tamed and controlled a free flowing river. This use of imagery emphasises that everything in the city including natural forces are enslaved by the city. In the next line, "Marks of weakness, marks of woe," there could be a play on words, "Mark" means both "to see" or "to notice" but then again there could be another meaning; like a physical mark upon someone’s face like a sign of grief or misery.

Prayer In Public Schools Essay

The pros and cons of prayer in public schools have been debated for over forty years. The foundation of the United States is based on religious tolerance. The pilgrims came to this country because they were not free to worship and serve God leading to the guarantee of religious freedom in the Constitution. In years past, it was not acceptable in this country to proclaim disbelief in God.   Prayer in schools was an integral part of religious life. During the 1940’s and 1950’s, conservatives and liberals believed religion focusing on a personal relationship with Christ should be taught in schools (Zimmerman, pg. 1). It was not until the 1960’s that individuals began to have issues with this status quote. With more and more citizens coming forward to fight for their individual religious rights, it was decided by the Supreme Court that since everyone does not believe in God (or does not believe in the same God) open prayer should be removed from public schools. This does not mean that all prayer was removed from public schools. The 1962 ruling of the Supreme Court found organized school prayer unconstitutional (Manegold, pg. 1), which means that students can still pray privately. Yet, some people still found this unacceptable. No matter what side of the issue someone sits on, the fight surrounding prayer in public schools is deep and long-running. â€Å"Separation of church and state is a fundamental premise of our Constitution and our country,† (pbs.org, pg. 1). Prayer represents church and the Supreme Court and public schools represent state. The Constitution infers that the two should never meet. Those who oppose prayer in schools, first argue that prayer in public schools bring church and state together. The 1962 decision brought a surprising number of religious supporters. Martin Luther King Jr. was one such supporter. â€Å"It’s prayer decision was sound and good,† King declared, â€Å"reaffirming something that is basic in our Constitution, namely separation of church and state† (Zimmerman, pg. 1). Pastors and proclaimed Christians supported the Supreme Court because they did not want the state or government mixing in church affairs. Another argument focuses on personal rights guaranteed by the Constitution. As citizens of the United States, every person is guaranteed certain rights and public prayer impinges on those rights. Personal religious beliefs should not be forced onto someone else. Everyone has a right to pray and believe in what they want, whenever they want. The 1st â€Å"amendment sets out the principles regarding religion, speech, press, assembly, and petition.   Basically, it protects our rights to worship as we want, say what we want, publish what we want, gather in groups, and make our concerns known to the government.   It also prohibits the government from identifying with a particular religion; effectively separating church and state† (pbs.org, pg. 1). When students are allowed to prayer publicly, the issue of others imposing their personal beliefs on others will occur. Prayer in school inhibits personal and guaranteed rights.   Supporters of prayer in public schools believe the Supreme Court has overstepped its authority. â€Å"The supreme Court†¦serves to clarify, refine and test the ideals written into the Constitution (pbs.org, pg. 1). It is their job to interpret the Constitution when lawsuits are filed concerning Constitutional laws. As a result of restricted prayer in public school, supporters of prayer continue to flood Congress with proposals to â€Å"keep the issue alive†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Zimmerman, pg. 1), fighting to bring organized prayer back into public schools.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Supporters argue that the amount of violence in today’s schools is directly linked to the ban of prayer in schools. It is not just a matter of students fist fighting but violence often involve knifes and guns, resulting in deaths. â€Å"Juvenile delinquency is on the rise. America is in an advanced state of moral decline,† (Zimmerman, pg. 2). Those in favor of prayer in schools are convinced that if God is brought back into the classroom, the violence will stop. The Bible teaches against violence and teaches love and tolerance. Collective and organized prayer will bring students together and stop violence.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The United States is a diverse country with millions of people who believe in different religions and serve different Gods (or the same God called by different names). Students have a right to go to school and not be made to feel uncomfortable because of public prayer. The problem with supporters of prayer in public schools is that they do not understand the Supreme Court’s 1962 ruling. The Supreme Court’s ruled organized prayer is unconstitutional. Students can still pray privately. There is no reason to have public prayer unless the goal is to sway individuals to a particular way of thinking. Twenty-two years before the 1962 ruling, in 1940, the Supreme Court ruled â€Å"that a public school may require students to salute the flag and pledge allegiance even if it violates their religious scruples† (pbs.org, pg. 2).   Although this ruling was overturned three years later, it shows how the subject of school and religion has always been a murky area. The issue of prayer in school remains â€Å"unsettled† from the Supreme Court to local governments to school officials (Manegold, pg. 1). The first amendment has guaranteed everyone the right to free speech, therefore, citizens of the United States will continue to fight for rights they believe have been infringed in any way. The debate over prayer in school has not ended and is not likely to end in the near future. Works Cited    Manegold, Catherine S. February 5, 1994. Senators Take a Cautious Stand on School Prayer. New York Times. Retrieved from http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html. PBS. April 5, 2001. â€Å"School and Religion.† Virginia. Retrieved from http://www.pbs.org/newshour/extra/features/jan-june00/school_prayer.htm. Zimmerman, Jonathan. January 25, 2001. â€Å"The Other Massive Resistance: School Prayer and the Conservative Revolution, 1962-1984†. New York University. Retrieved from http://www.virginia.edu/uvanewsmakers/newsmakers/zimmerman.html.

The play Refund is a light and rollicking play Essay

The thread of the one act ‘Refund’ itself is very interesting.A man about 40 is returning to his old school and demands to refund the tuition fees paid by him 18 years back for the reason that the education gave to him never proved useful and he is now no good for anything. The play comprises only a few characters – the principal, the teachers and the protoganist Wasserkopf. Wasserkopf’s mistakes act as learning ground. The protoganist is an object of wrong doings and commits all sorts of mistakes and finally gives up in the hands of the principal and the teachers. 1. Wasserkopf has a negative value i.e. determination but in doing wrong things.He is ready to do anything just to prove that his school has taught him nothing and his knowledge is negligible. 2. The protagonist’s address to his masters shows to the role players and the viewers that how important the values of respect and accuracy are. No doubts viewers especially students will laugh on such utterance but ultimately as the play advances further, this behaviour is mere mockery over the pupils who are always ready to blame others and the system. The mistake committed thus is linked up with the chain of events which finally leads to a moral teaching. 3. Here the protagonist considers himself to be very wise. But in reality it is his mistake .True wisdom is shown in the form of the masters. They are insulted at the hands of this pupil as he addresses them as ‘old stick-in-the-mud, cannibal. Hypocrite, nitwit, ass etc but they show patience and self control in teaching him a lesson. 4.Wasserkopf never worked hard and he is fired from his job because of the same reason i.e. his inability to work hard. Well at the end of the play it is ultimately proved that no doubts this ex-pupil tried to prove that his school taught him nothing, but it’s only his education which made him capable enough to calculate the correct sum in a systematic way. Therefore Wasserkopf had to suffer due to his lies and corrupt values.